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鉴于很多人把科学知识和科学态度老是弄混，特转个科普文章，给想看的看看：
FROM: http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_scientific_attitude
Bhaskara Rao (1989) stated that the most useful scientific attitudesare open mindedness, critical mindedness, respect for evidence,suspended judgment, intellectual honesty, willingness to changeopinion, search for truth, curiosity, rational thinking, etc.
Scientific attitude is really a composite of a number of mentalhabits, or of tendencies to react consistently in certain ways to anovel or problematic situation. These habits or tendencies includeaccuracy, intellectual honesty, open-mindedness, suspended judgment,criticalness, and a habit of looking for true cause and effectrelationships. It is a cognitive concept; scientific attitudes arenormally associated with the mental processes of scientists. Thesehabits are important in the everyday life and thinking, not only of thescientist, but of everyone.
Scientific attitudes possess attributes thought to be eithertrue or false and do not express an evaluative quality. To lessen thesemantic confusion, scientific attitudes may be better labeled as"scientific attributes". The attributes of scientific attitude arerationality, curiosity, open mindedness, aversion to superstitions,objectivity in intellectual honesty and suspended judgment.
Rationality 理性
It means 'the quality or condition of being rational'.Philosophers have the view that the aim of science is the achievementof truth and the avoidance of error (Goldman, 1999). On this view,science is rational to the extent that the beliefs that it accumulatesare true, and scientific reasoning is rational to the extent that ittends to produce true beliefs. Rationality, normally defined as givingreasons for actions or for holding beliefs. Man is a rational animal.Rationality is the process of using reason or logic to solve a problem.
A logical argument is sometimes described as "rational" if itis logically valid. However, rationality is a much broader term thanlogic, as it includes "uncertain but sensible" arguments based onprobability, expectation, personal experience and the like, whereaslogic deals principally with provable facts and demonstrably validrelations between them.
First of all, rationality is objective - it exists only when avalid practical syllogism is used. Second, a choice is either rationalor it is not - there is no gradation since there is no gradationbetween valid and invalid arguments. Third, rationality only applies toactions - i.e., shutting the window is a rational thing to do if youare cold (assuming it is cold outside).
A person with rationality will prefer the reason in all theactions. That is the thing one should learn form science."Cause-and-effect" underlies everything. In simple mechanisms, anaction causes a reaction, and effects do not occur without causes. Thisdoes not mean that some processes are not random or chaotic. But acausative agent does not alone produce one effect today and anothertomorrow.
He will show the tendency to test traditional beliefs for reason.
· Commitment to the value of rationality
· Tendency to test traditional beliefs
· Seeking for natural causes of events and identification of cause and effect relationships
· Acceptance of criticalness
· Challenge of authority
Curiosity 好奇心
Curiosity is an innate capability of many living beings, but itcan not be subsumed under category of instinct because it lacks thequality of fixed action pattern; it is rather one of innate basicemotions because it can be expressed in many flexible ways whileinstinct is always expressed in a fixed way, and like any innatecapability it confers a survival advantage to certain species, and canbe found in their genomes.
Every one shows desire for understanding new situations ingeneral life. One will get so many new situations if they open sciencebooks but how may of them are interested to understand them is a bigquestion mark?
Newspaper will reflect on the publics' attitude. If there isany accident especially crime then public will show interest toinvestigate the situation and it will present in the front page atnews, head lines in news channels and life coverage with modernfacilities but if there is any peculiar thing related to science isinnovated by Indian scientist that will occupy the last page only. Thefindings, which are controversial to the religion, will come to thefront page in the media. In 2006, the news of solar system came in tomedia for reducing the number planets around the sun. The news in'EENADU' daily came as now how can u go for astrology? Because thenumber of planets in astrology is, nine but now scientists reduced toseven. The difference between astrological planets and the astrologyplanets is not considered in this news.
Child is the first scientist. It is the answer given to thechildren by our great professor A. P. J. Abdul Kalam because curiosityis more among the children. They wish to see the outer world and poseso many questions to the elders. Elders will get confused to answer thequeries of the children. They never satisfy with the half answer.
Open mindedness 开放意识
In the language of the general public, open-mindedness means being opento possible theories and explanations for a particular phenomenon. Butin science, it means that and something more. Philosopher JonathanAdler (1998) teaches us that science values another aspect ofopen-mindedness even more highly: "What truly marks an open-mindedperson is the willingness to follow where evidence leads. Theopen-minded person is willing to defer to impartial investigationsrather than to his own predilections...Scientific method is attunementto the world, not to ourselves".
When Harold Urey, author of one textbook theory on the originof the moon's surface, examined the moon rocks brought back from theApollo mission, he immediately recognized this theory did not fit thehard facts laying before him. "I've been wrong!" he proclaimed withoutany thought of defending the theory he had supported for decades.
Aversion to superstitious beliefs 厌恶迷信
A superstition is the belief that events are influencedby specific behaviors, without having a causal relationship.Superstition is derived from the Latin words "super" (over, beyond) and"sto, stare" (to stand). Therefore, superstion means one who overlystands, or not being progressive. A superstition is a false beliefbased on ignorance (e.g., if we don't beat the drums during an eclipse, the evil demon won't return the sun to the sky), fear of the unknown(e.g., if we don't chop up this chicken in just the right way and burnit according to tradition while uttering just the right incantationsthen the rain won't come and our crops won't grow and we'll starve), trust in magic (e.g., if I put spit or dirt on my beautiful child who has been praised, the effects of the evil eye will be averted), trust in chance (if I open this book randomly and let my finger fall to any word that word will guide my future actions), or some other false conception of causation.
In the academic discipline of folkloristic the term "superstition" isused to denote any folk belief expressed in if/then (with an optional"unless" clause) format. If you break a mirror, then you will have seven years of bad luck unless you throw all of the pieces into a body of running water. In this usage, the term is not pejorative.
Superstitions are based on general, culturally variable beliefs in asupernatural "reality". Depending on a given culture's belief set, itssuperstitions may relate to things that are not fully understood orknown, such as cemeteries, animals, demons, a devil, deceasedancestors, the weather, ripping one's sock, gambling, sports, food,holidays, occupations, excessive scrupulosity, death, luck, andspirits. In Western folklore, traditional superstitions associated withbad luck include Friday the 13th, walking under a ladder, and blackcats. A Friday occurring on the 13thday of any month is considered to be a day of bad luck in English,German, Polish, Bulgarian and Portuguese-speaking cultures around theglobe. Indian subcontinent there are so many superstitutions as apregnant woman should avoid going outside during an eclipse in order toprevent her baby being born with a facial birthmark. No scientist canknow all of the experimental evidence underlying current scienceconcepts and therefore must adopt some views without understandingtheir basis. A scientist rejects superstition and prefers scienceparadigms out of an appreciation for the power of reality basedknowledge.
Superstition and psychology
B.F. Skinner placed a series of hungry pigeons in a cageattached to an automatic mechanism that delivered food to the pigeon"at regular intervals with no reference whatsoever to the bird'sbehavior". He discovered that the pigeons associated the delivery ofthe food with whatever chance actions they had been performing as itwas delivered, and that they continued to perform the same actions:
One bird was conditioned to turn counter-clockwise about thecage, making two or three turns between reinforcements. Anotherrepeatedly thrust its head into one of the upper corners of the cage. Athird developed a 'tossing' response, as if placing its head beneath aninvisible bar and lifting it repeatedly. Two birds developed a pendulummotion of the head and body, in which the head was extended forward andswung from right to left with a sharp movement followed by a somewhatslower return. ("'Superstition' in the Pigeon", B.F. Skinner, Journalof Experimental Psychology #38, 1947)
Skinner suggested that the pigeons believed that they wereinfluencing the automatic mechanism with their "rituals" and that theexperiment also shed light on human behavior:
The experiment might be said to demonstrate a sort ofsuperstition. The bird behaves as if there were a causal relationbetween its behavior and the presentation of food, although such arelation is lacking. There are many analogies in human behavior.Rituals for changing one's luck at cards are good examples. A fewaccidental connections between a ritual and favorable consequencessuffice to set up and maintain the behavior in spite of manyunreinforced instances. The bowler who has released a ball down thealley but continues to behave as if he were controlling it by twistingand turning his arm and shoulder is another case in point. Thesebehaviors have, of course, no real effect upon one's luck or upon aball half way down an alley, just as in the present case the food wouldappear as often if the pigeon did nothing -- or, more strictlyspeaking, did something else.
Like the pigeons, many people associate behavior (head-turningor worship of God(s)) with an external phenomenon that was notnecessarily connected in any way with personal behavior. Does eatingchicken before a baseball game improve batting? Wade Boggs, one ofbaseball history's best hitters, believed it did: He ate chicken dailyfor over 20 years. It may seem silly, but millions of people worldwideperform similar rituals for luck. In his newly updated book, Believingin Magic (Oxford University Press, 2000), Stuart A. Vyse, Ph.D., apsychology professor at Connecticut College, investigates why so manyrational people believe so strongly in things that seem so irrational.
"We face many important and uncertain challenges, andsuperstition provides the illusion of control when it's lacking," Vysesays. Practicing superstition can be psychologically beneficial."Superstitious rituals can reduce tension and give a sense that you'redoing what you can to help out," he says.
Objectivity-intellectual honesty客观的心智和诚实
Objectivity, another form of intellectual honesty in research,means that we let nature "speak for itself" without imposing our wisheson it--that we report the results of experimentation as accurately aswe can and that we interpret them as fairly as possible. Objectivity iscritical to the process of science, but it does not mean that suchattitudes must characterize each and every scientist for science as awhole to work.
There is an objective base proof on heaven and hell. Thetemperature of heaven can be rather accurately computed. Our authorityis the Bible, Isaiah 30:26 reads, Moreover,the light of the moon shall be as the light of the sun and the light ofthe sun shall be sevenfold as the light of seven days. Thus, heavenreceives from the moon as much radiation as the earth does from thesun, and in addition, seven times seven (forty nine) times as much asthe earth does from the sun, or fifty times in all. The light wereceive from the moon is one ten-thousandth of the light we receivefrom the sun, so we can ignore that. With these data we can compute thetemperature of heaven: The radiation falling on heaven will heat it tothe point where the heat lost by radiation is just equal to the heatreceived by radiation. In other words, heaven loses fifty times as muchheat as the earth by radiation. Using the Stefan-Boltzmann fourth powerlaw for radiation
(H/E)4 = 50
where E is the absolute temperature of the earth, 300°K(273+27). This gives H the absolute temperature of heaven, as 798°absolute (525°C).
The exact temperature of hell cannot be computed but it must beless than 444.6°C, the temperature at which brimstone or sulfur changesfrom a liquid to a gas. Revelations 21:8: But the fearful and unbelieving... shall have their part in the lake which burneth with fire and brimstone."A lake of molten brimstone [sulfur] means that its temperature must beat or below the boiling point, which is 444.6°C. We have then,temperature of heaven, 525°C (977°F). Temperature of the hell is lessthan 445°F. Therefore, heaven is hotter than hell.
Jacob Bronowski (1977) often argued that the unique power ofscience to reveal knowledge about the world does not arise becausescientists are uniquely virtuous. It arises because fallible scientistsare immersed in a process of checks and balances--aprocess in which scientists are always there to criticize and to rootout errors. Philosopher Daniel Dennett (1999/2000) points out that"scientists take themselves to be just as weak and fallible as anybodyelse, but recognizing those very sources of error in themselves. Theyhave devised elaborate systems to tie their own hands, forciblypreventing their frailties and prejudices from infecting theirresults".
Suspended judgment暂缓论断All good scientists are skeptics. This means that they maintain anattitude of doubt or of suspended judgment about scientific ideas.Innon-legal contexts, a judgmentis a balanced weighing up of evidence preparatory to making a decision.The formal process of evaluation can sometimes be described as a set ofconditions and criteria that must be satisfied in order for a judgmentto be made. Diederich describes: "A scientist tries hard not to form anopinion on a given issue until he has investigated it, because it is sohard to give up opinion already formed, and they tend to make us findfacts that support the opinions... There must be however, a willingnessto act on the best hypothesis that one has time or opportunity toform."
The subject matter of science has been described as "judgmentson which it is possible to obtain universal agreement." These judgmentsdo not concern individual events, which can be witnessed only by a fewpersons at most. They are the invariable association of events orproperties, which are known as the laws of science. Agreement isobtained by observation and experiment - a court of appeal to which menof all races and creeds must submit if they wish to survive. |
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楼主: jessi
楼主
发表于 26-5-2009 14:01:32
研究ＵＦＯ的器材都准备好了，有兴趣到无光害的地方开光！
